Globale Produktionsnetzwerke und „Prekäres Upgrading“ in der Elektronikindustrie in Mittel- und Osteuropa (MOE) Die Beispiele Ungarn und Rumänien Leonhard Plank/Cornelia Staritz RV Globale Güterketten, Universität Wien, SS2010

Überblick Forschungsansatz Globale Elektronikindustrie MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Fazit

I. Forschungsansatz Ketten-/Netzwerk-Ansätze Global Commodity Chains (Gereffi/Koreniewicz 1994); Global Value Chains (Gereffi/Humphrey/Sturgeon 2001); Global Production Networks (Henderson/Dicken/Hess/Coe 2002) Gewählter Zugang: Adaptierter GPN-Ansatz Berücksichtigung von Nicht-Firmen Akteuren sowie regulativen und institutionellen Kontexten Breitere Konzeption von Industrial Upgrading Berücksichtigung von ArbeiterInnen & Social Upgrading

Forschungsansatz Globale Elektronikindustrie MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Fazit

II. Globale Elektronikindustrie Hardware/Software/Services Hardware-Produkte: iPod, Laptop, Handys, LCD-TV Globaler Handel Rapider Anstieg seit den 1980ern; Dynamischster Sektor im globalen Handel Produktionsprozess ...in organisatorisch fragmentierten und geographisch breit gestreuten GPNs Zunehmende Integration von Entwicklungs-/ Transformationsländern in GPNs Sektor: Bedeutende Rolle in Strategien

Modularisierung der Value Chain Vertikal Integrierte Computer-Industrie (ca. 1980) Vertikal Spezialisierte Computer-Industrie (ca. 1995)

Main market segments Product examples Lead firm examples 1) Computers Enterprise computing systems, personal computers (desktop, notebook, netbook), embedded computers, etc. IBM, Fujitsu, Siemens, Hewlett Packard, Dell, Apple, Acer, Lenovo, etc. 2) Computer peripherals & other office equipment Printers, fax machines, copiers, scanners, etc. Hewlett Packard, Xerox, Epson, Kodak, Cannon, Lexmark, Acer, Fujitsu, Sharp, etc. 3) Consumer electronics Game consoles, television, home audio & video, portable audio & video, mobile phone handets, musical equipment, toys, etc. Toshiba, NEC, Vizio, Sony, Sharp Apple, Nintendo, Microsoft, Samsung, LG, NEC, Matsushita, Hitachi, Microsoft, HTC, Philips, etc. 4) Server & storage devices Portable, internal, external, backup systems, storage services, etc. Toshiba, Western Digital, EMC, NetApp, Hewlett Packard, Hitachi, Seagate, Maxtor, LeCie, Quantum, etc. 5) Networking Public telecommunications, private communications networks, Internet, mobile phone infrastructure, etc. Alcatel, Nortel, Cisco, Motorola, Juniper, Huawei, Ericsson, Nokia, Tellabs, etc. 6) Automotive electronics Entertainment, communication, vehicle control (braking, acceleration, traction, suspension), navigation, etc. TomTom, Garmin, Clarion, Toyota, General Motors, Renault, Bosch, Siemens, etc. 7) Medical electronics Consumer medical, diagnostics & testing, imaging, telemedicine, meters & monitoring, implants, fitness, etc. General Electric, Philips, Medtronic, Varian, etc. 8) Industrial electronics Security & surveillance, factory automation, building automation, military systems, aircraft, aerospace, banking & ATM, transportation, etc. Diebold, Siemens, Rockwell, Philips, Omron, Dover, etc. 9) Military & aerospace electronics Ground combat systems, aircraft, sea-based systems, eavesdropping and surveillance, satellites, missile guidance & intercept, etc. L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin, Boeing, BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, General Dynamics, EADS, L-3 Communications, Finmeccanica, United Technologies, etc. Source: Sturgeon/Kawakami (2010) Global Value Chains in the Electronics Industry. In: Cattaneo, O./Gereffi, G./Staritz, C. (eds.): Global Value Chains in a Post-Crisis World. A Development Perspective. Washington: World Bank.

Akteure in der Unternehmenssphäre Lead firms bzw. Original Brand Manufacturer (OBM) Kontraktfertiger Original Design Manufacturer (ODM) Contract Electronics Manufacturer (CEM) bzw. Electronics Manufacturing Services firms (EMS) Zulieferer

Source: ILO (2007) The production of electronic components for the IT industries: Changing labour force requirements in a global economy. Geneva: ILO.

Top Kontraktfertiger Top 5 Taiwan-based CMs Primary service 2009 Revenue (US$ Millions) Foxconn/Hon Hai EMS 44,065 Quanta Computer ODM 23,265 Compal Electronics 19,424 Wistron 16,226 Inventec 12,349 Top 5 North America-based CMs Flextronics (USA & Singapore) 30,949 Jabil Circuit (USA) 11,685 Celestica (Canada) 6,092 Sanmina-SCI (USA) 5,177 Benchmark Electronics (USA) 2,089 Top 5 CMs in other locations Venture (Singapore) 2.428 Elcoteq (Luxembourg) 2,090 SIIX (Japan) 1,360 Beyonics (Singapore) 1,120 Zollner Elektronik (Germany) 970 Source: Sturgeon/Kawakami (2010) Global Value Chains in the Electronics Industry. In: Cattaneo, O./Gereffi, G./Staritz, C. (eds.): Global Value Chains in a Post-Crisis World. A Development Perspective. Washington: World Bank.

Institutionelle und Regulative Kontexte FDI-Politik Export-Zonen & ähnliche Instrumente: Industrial Free Trade Zones in Ungarn Steuervergünstigungen & andere Incentives Special Deals: Dell in Lodz (PL), Nokia in Cluj (RO) Handelsliberalisierung Abschluss des Information Technology Agreement im Rahmen der WTO (Singapur, 1996) Aktuelles Streitfall: US/Japan/Taiwan vs. EU (6-14% Zölle auf Multifunktionsdrucker, TV Set-Top Boxen, LCD) Regionale Handelsabkommen

INCENTIVES PROPOSED DURING EU PRE-ACCESSION PERIOD BY CENTRAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES   COUNTRIES Hungary Poland Czech Rep Slovakia  Incentives 10 years corporate tax 10 first years Full 10 years Full corporate 10 years corporate Tax exemption corporate tax exemption tax exemption 5 years local tax Subsidies Economic Subsidies for training: develop. negotiable 50 % of the cost Subsidies for Job Subsidies for job creation: max. USD 350.000 USD 4750 per job USD 3200 per job Imported raw materials Duty and VAT suspension and components Max duration for reexport 2 years Equipment Duty free and VAT free import of new machinery equipment Duty free and VAT free import of new machinery equipment Industrial Parks/ yes on request Yes on request customs free zones Customs office on site yes Source: Jabil Electronics, Electronics Manufacturing Investment in Ukraine, Presentation, 7. Juli 2005, Kiew, Ukraine

Geographie der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Global-Regionale Arbeitsteilung Globale Zulieferer: Asien (China) Regionale Zulieferer: Mexiko, Mittel- und Osteuropa North America Asia Mexico Lead firms (design, marketing, and sales) Contract manufacturer (circuit board and final assembly) Component and equipment suppliers Finished products Contract manufacturer (global headquarters, purchasing, circuit board and final assy.) Contract mfg. (purchasing, circuit board and final assy.) Orders, designs, bill of materials Components, equipment Component specs.

Forschungsansatz Globale Elektronikindustrie MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Fazit

Total Imports (SITC 75, 76, 776), in US$   1995 2000 2003 2005 2007 Total Imports (SITC 75, 76, 776), in US$ 103.208.508.550 159.632.772.432 161.264.972.494 224.326.015.439 270.156.983.440 1 USA 30,28% 25,09% China 19,11% 27,73% 32,98% 2 Japan 22,53% 15,82% 16,59% 12,48% 11,92% 3 Singapore 8,77% 8,55% 13,02% 10,46% 8,83% 4 Other Asia, nes 7,00% 8,23% 7,84% Rep. of Korea 7,73% 6,85% 5 Malaysia 5,35% 6,65% 6,39% 5,88% 5,15% 6 4,55% 6,34% 6,26% 5,05% 4,87% 7 4,35% 5,52% 6,04% 5,00% Hungary 8 Special Cat. 2,49% 3,49% 4,03% 4,89% Czech Rep. 3,75% 9 Hong Kong 2,41% 3,14% Philippines 2,92% 2,65% 3,45% 10 Thailand 2,02% 2,55% 2,29% 2,51% Slovakia 2,30% 11 Canada 1,38% 2,13% 2,14% 2,03% 2,20% 12 Switzerland 1,24% 2,10% 1,98% 2,01% 1,83% 13 Europe EU, nes 0,93% 1,80% Poland 1,15% Turkey 1,29% 1,52% 14 0,90% 1,02% 1,04% Costa Rica 1,16% 1,39% 15 Areas, nes 0,65% Israel 0,99% Indonesia 0,97% UAE 0,89% 16 Malta 0,64% 0,82% 0,88% 17 Norway 0,57% Mexico 0,69% 0,79% 18 Estonia 0,87% 19 0,56% 0,86% 0,80% 0,74% 20 0,39% 0,55% 0,61% 0,78% 0,73% 1,20% 5,33% 8,74% 9,97% 10,53% Source: UN Comtrade Database, Electronics Imports into EU-15 from the World.

Elektronik-Produktion in MOE Source: Yearbook of World Electronics Data 2009/2010, Reed Electronics Research

MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Assembly-Plattform für EU-15 Beispiel Ungarn: Handelsbilanzdefizit-/überschuss bei Komponenten/Endprodukten  „High-Tech“-Exports??? Dominiert durch ausländische TNCs - 2 Phasen seit 1990ern Expansion Lead firms/OBMs (ab Anfang der 1990er) Contract Manufacturers (ab Mitte 1990er) Restrukturierung und verschärfter Verlagerungsdruck (ab 2001)

Dominanz ausländischer TNCs: Ungarn Source: Sass, Magdolna (2005) The ICT manufacturing sector in Hungary. Budapest: Institute of Economics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences

Forschungsansatz Globale Elektronikindustrie MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Fazit

Elektroniksektor in Ungarn und Rumänien Exporte Ungarn: Top Exporter in EU-15; Rumänien: Newcomer Export-Fokus auf EU-Markt Elektronik-Produktion Ungarn: ca. 27% der Fertigungs-Industrie in HU (2007) Rumänien: ca. 6% der Fertigungs-Industrie in RO (2007) Beschäftigungszahlen Ungarn: ca. 70.000 Personen (2007) Rumänien: ca. 28.000 Personen (2007)

Industrial und Social Upgrading Industrial Upgrading Typologie von Humphrey/Schmitz (2002) a) Process (b) Product (c) Functional (d) Inter-Chain Upgrading Embeddedness bzw. Effekte auf lokale Ökonomie Internal vs. External Upgrading Social Upgrading ICFTU „Basic Code of Labour Practice“ 8 Arbeitsstandards (inklusive 4 ILO Kernarbeitsnormen)

ICFTU ‘Basic Code of Labour Practice’ no forced or bonded labour no discrimination in employment no child labour freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining right to a living wage no excessive working time occupational health and safety measures right to the establishment of an employment relationship.

Industrial Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Internal Industrial Upgrading Modernisierung des Sektors (Process, Product and Functional Upgrading) External Industrial Upgrading Lokale Verflechtungen (linkages) Fehlende backward linkages Erklärung: „absorptive capacity“ vs. etablierte Zulieferstruktur (approved vendor list). Spill-Overs & potentielle Channels Human-Kapital (skilled vs. un/semi-skilled) Demonstrations-Effekte Backward/Forward Linkages

Social Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Polarisierung der Beschäftigten Indirekte: Management, techn. Angestellte Direkte: ArbeiterInnen an Fertigungsstraßen Arbeitsstandards Löhne Arbeitszeiten Flexible Beschäftigungsformen Gewerkschaftsrechte

Forschungsansatz Globale Elektronikindustrie MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien Fazit

Fazit Internal Industrial Upgrading, aber beschränktes external Industrial Upgrading Beschränktes Social Upgrading …im Kontext der besonderen Rolle von ArbeiterInnen im Sektor („McDonalds“-Approach) Oberflächliche Integration setzt Standorte und ArbeiterInnen Verlagerungsdruck bzw. Standortstrategien von OBMs/CMs aus „Prekäres“ Upgrading

Danke

Elektronik GPN

A McDonald´s Approach (Lüthje 2002) ‘Work without a product’ As CEM-plants do not manufacture their ‘own’ products, quality management and workplace control has to be refocused on customer orientation and manufacturing has to be organized as ‘service work’. Relatively low wages with high variable proportions As most CEM-plants are located in low-cost areas, manufacturing wages and benefits are rather modest, and bonus-oriented pay-systems (including stock ownership and options) have to ensure customer orientation. Labour flexibility The constant and very rapid change in production volumes is managed by an extensive use of various kinds of flexible employment. Quality management based on restricted teamwork In most plants there is an ideology of ‘team orientation’, but no formal structure of work groups etc., as known from team concepts in other industries. Heavy reliance on women and minority workers As in most areas of electronics manufacturing, the majority of the manufacturing workforce is female. In the U.S., in particular in California, the workforce is mainly recruited from ethnic minorities in disadvantaged labour market positions.